An Overview of Traditional Herbal Plants: Pathway to Develop
Anti-Cancer Siddha Medicine
Mani Abdul Karim[1], Dr. J. Venkatachalam[2], Dr. Padma[3], Dr. Suganthi[4]
[1] Researcher, 7d Phytoneural Research Lab, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. http://7dresearchlab.com/
[2] Professor, Department of Psychology, Periyar University, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India
[3] Siddha Doctor and Consultant, The Universal Good Life Centre, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.
[4] Siddha Doctor and Consultant, The Universal Good Life Centre, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.
Abstract
Many herbs of our surroundings are often unnoticed to us which are very powerful to address many of today’s major health issues. Particularly, Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality, not only India, worldwide. The economic burden to treat cancer is increasing every year. In this modern era, people are mostly depending on conventional medicine to get fast relief from such chronic diseases. Once they get fed-up with that system, then trying to focus on other alternative medicine. The present scenario enlightened other systems of medicine, viz., Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani, are considering for the treatment or therapeutic purposes of anti-cancer care. There are much sources from classical texts, particularly in Siddha, which are described more detail in the form of classic poems about the treatment of cancer as well as preventing them before it is turned severe. The main objective of this paper is to highlight the traditional herbs which are treating cancer, based on early Siddha classical texts. Much research reports have evidenced that due to the presence of antioxidants in the medicinal plants, which helps to prevent or suppress cancer disease. For developing new combinations by using herbal plants, and preparation of dose and dosage regimen, this article would be helpful in the treatment of cancer. Also, there is a broad scope for Indian medicinal plants to treat anticancer, which need further research.
Keywords: Medicinal plants, Siddha, Cancer and Antioxidants.
Introduction
Human beings in different regions of the world have their own traditional form of healing method which are firmly rooted in their culture and history (WHO, 2000). Recently, WHO defines Traditional Medicine (TM) as including diverse health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal, and / or mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and experiences applied by single or in combination to maintain well-being, as well as to treat, diagnose or prevent illness (WHO, 2013, 2002). Siddha system of medicine is one of the traditional Indian medical system which is flourished in the Southern part of India especially, Tamil Nadu (Thirunarayanan, 2012; Pesek et al., 2009; Prasad, 2002).
The natural plants have been used in the Siddha system to treat various diseases for thousands of years. Also, it helps to prevent or suppress as well as successful outcome of various diseases and tumours. The word ‘Siddhi’ means attainment of perfection. Ancient Siddhars have been prescribed many formulations viz., single drugs, compound mixed drugs (Chooranam), Chendhooram, medicated oils (thylams), liquids (Manapagu) and decoctions (Kudineer) which are prescribed on the basis of classical literature written in Tamil Language. The Tamil names like Kandamaalai Rogapadalam (Lympoma like illness), Kiranthinoigal, Mega katti, Putrunoi (Tumour), and Vippuruthi Noipadalam (Carcinoma like illness) revealed in Siddha literatures which are resemblance name to the cancer like diseases (Lekha et al., 2018).
Cancer is considered as one of the major Non Communicable Diseases (NCD) in the developing countries. There are various triggering factors viz., urbanization, highly polluted environment, and changes in life-style, which are directly or indirectly playing major role to the development of cancer, like many other diseases. The term cancer indicates that a group of diseases which involves abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Also, it is a group of diseases caused by loss of cell cycle control. The clinical feature of cancer includes excessive growth in specific area of the body, abnormal bleeding, and changes in bowel movements. It is mainly caused by both external and internal factors. However, 90-95% of cancers are due to only environmental factors viz., tobacco, excessive alcohol, and certain infections such as hepatitis B, radiation, UV rays, stress, obesity, lack of physical exercises, poor diet and pollution (Anand et al, 2008). The internal factors viz., inherited mutations, hormones, immune conditions and mutations that occur from metabolism which are played crucial role in the development of cancer. There are more than hundred types of cancer existing nowadays. In the ancient civilization, the written records of Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus in 1600 BC describes about breast cancer (Faguet, 2015). Hippocrates 460 BC to 370 BC describes various kinds of cancer referring to them with Greek word Karkinos (Crab or Cray fish). The name comes from the appearance of the cut surface of solid malignant tumour with veins stretched on all sides as the animal crab (Faguet, 2015). Siddhars were the great scientists who exposed the reality of nature through their observation, continued experiences, and spiritual knowledge threw enlighten the illness of new growths or lumps, explained the therapeutic aspects in the form of condensed poems.
Review of disorders in Siddha system that resemblance to cancer diseases
The condensed poems in classical Siddha literature provide ample indication that cancer was known to ancient Siddha practitioners. This review is to explore the descriptions of cancer in the classical texts. It also reveals the clinical features of cancer which mentioned in the early Siddha Literature. Particularly, various names viz., Vippuruthi noi padalam (Carcinoma like diseases), Mega Katti, Kandamaalai Roga Padalam (Lymphoma like illness), Kiranthi Noigal, and Putru Noi (tumour) resembled to cancer occurred in various organ system. Some diseases of male and female genitalia also described in the clinical outcome of cancer. According to the classical Siddha Literature, Vippuruthi Noipadalam (carcinoma like disease) is being classified into seven types based on the pathogenicity, site of lesion, stages and severity of lesion (Thiyagarajan, 1976).
Specifically, in the site of lesion, Vippuruthi (carcinoma like disease) is classified as Karppavippuruthi (uterine), Kuvalaivippuruthi (genitalia), and Chanthuvippuruthi (abdomen). The literature also explains about the curable and incurable types of Vippuruthi Noi (Thiyagarajan, 1976; Lekha et al, 2018). Karppavippuruthi indicates the lump below the umbilicus, rupture and discharge of blood and a thick yellowish or greenish opaque liquid produced in the infected tissue, which consisting of dead white blood cells, bacteria with tissue debris and serum from the lesion. Kuvalaivippuruthi described as swelling in scrotum, pain and pricking sensation in genitalia. Chanthuvippuruthi is being distinguished by lump in the side of abdomen, severe pain and burning sensation, gradual redness and hardness of lump. Vathavippuruthi describes tongue shaped lumps, hepatomegaly, fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, pain and delirium; mentioned as incurable. Pitthabippuruthi have the features of blood vomiting, itching in the body, delirium and abdominal pain. Chethmavaippuruthi is characterized by fever, generalized oedema and green coloured stools; also mentioned as incurable. Oduvippuruthi is being expressed by red and white rashes, lump in the body, pain in the bone, ulceration in the body (Thiyagarajan, 1976; Lekha et al, 2018).
Kiranthi Noigal explained in certain Siddha literatures as capsular lesions characterized by burning sensation, rashes on the skin, mass, rupture and ulceration. The pathogenicity of Kiranthi Noigal as the aggravation of Iyya humour that combines with Vali humour and then gradually affecting the body humours viz., Saaram (body fluid), Chenneer (blood), Oon (muscle) and Kozhuppu (fat) which expresses the nodular lesions in the body (Mudhaliar, 1993).
Anti-cancerous Siddha Medicinal Plants
1. Azadirachta indica – Veppilai
Neem (Veppilai) is an evergreen tree that belongs to Meliaceae family, genus Azzadirachta. It also named as Nimba, Holy tree, Vembu, Arishtha, Indian neem tree, wonder tree, divine tree.It is a medicinal plant of Indian origin, a tree with more of 140 isolated compounds and at least 35 biologically active principles that have shown an important influence as cancer suppressors by interfering with the carcinogenesis process (Moga et al., 2018). A. Indica majorly helps to prevent gynaecological cancers, specifically ovarian and breast cancer (Moga et al., 2018).
2. Catharanthus roseus – Cutukattu malli
Periwinkle (Cutukattu malli) is an herbaceous plant growing to 1 m tall. The flowers are white to dark pink with a dark red centre, diameter with five petal like lobes. The botanical names of Periwinkle as Vinca Rosea (Catharanthus roseus), and its family name as Apocynaceae. The Tamil name of Periwinkle is Cutukattu malli, or Cutukattuppu. The anticancer alkaloids Vinblastine and Vincristine are derived from stem and leaf of Periwinkle which helps to inhibit growth of some human tumours. Vincristine as another alkaloids help to prevent or treatment of leukemia in children (Banskota, 2002; Wang, Zheng & Weng, 2004; Aruna et al., 2015). Periwinkle not only have alkaloids which prevent or treat cancer, but also have active compounds to treat diabetics, helminthic infections (Agarwal et al., 2011), ulcer (Babulova, Machova & Nosalova, 2003), hypotension (Pillay, Nair, & Kumari, 1959), diarrhea (Rajput, Nair, & Chauhan, 2011), wound healing (Nayak, Anderson & Pereira, 2007), hypolipidmic (Patel et al., 2011), and memory enhancement (Sekar, 1996).
3. Cynodon dactylon– Arugam Pul
Cynodon dactylon Pers. is a perennial grass, belongs to the family of Poaceae (Harlan, 1970). The methanol extract of Cynodon dactylon possessed significant antitumor activity and hepatoprotective effect against Ehrlich ascitic Lymphoma (ELA) in Swiss albino mice and brought back the altered levels of the haematological parameters and liver enzymes (Krishnamoorthy & Ashwini, 2011; Marappan & Annapoorani, 2012). Aqueous and ethanol extract of C. dactylon (500 µg/ml) were investigated for their antibacterial activity against gram positive bacteria and gram negative bacteria using disc diffusion, well in agar and micro dilution method. E. coli, B.subtilis, S. aureus and A. hydrophila were more susceptible in the ethanol extract and no result was found in aqueous extract (Kaleeswaran et al., 2010). Also, Alcoholic extract of Cynodon dactylon was evaluated at 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg, orally for pylorusligated and in domethacin induced gastric ulcer models in albino rats. Alcoholic extracts at 400and 600 mg/kg showed significant (p>0.001) antiulcer activity, comparable to the standard drug ranitidine (Patil et al., 2003).
4. Aegle marmelos – Vilvam
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Serr is one of the important plant with several medicinal and nutraceutical properties. It has commonly known as wood apple plant. Pulp and seeds of Aegle marmelos fruit contain Lupeol, showing strong positive action against breast and thyroid cancer. Lupeol affects the gene expression of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line and inhibits cell proliferation. Adverse effects of both radiotherapy and chemotherapy get diminished by antioxidant property of Aeglemarmelos (Pradhan, Mohapatra & Pradhan, 2015; Lekha et al., 2018). Further, in the phytochemical studies, there are different organic extracts of the leaves of Aegle mermelos have been reported to possess alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids and steroids (Venkatesan et al., 2009; Sivaraj et al., 2011).
5. Zingiber Officinale Roscoe – Sukku
Zingiber officinale Roscoe commonly known as ginger belongs to the family of Zingiberaceae. It originated from china and spread to India, South East Asia, West Africa and the Carribbean (Weiss, 1997; McGee, 2004). However, India is the biggest producer of ginger in the world.
It has several medicinal properties to cure or treating different diseases, particularly, curing heart problems, treat stomach upset, diarrhea, and nausea (Shukla & Singh, 2007). Ginger has been found to anti-cancerous activity as well as it helps to inhibit the growth of human colorectal cancer cells (Bode, 2003). Specifically, it has been examined that the effects of hot water extract of ginger rhizome on spontaneous mammary tumorigenesis. When the extract of ginger given to the mice at the rate of 0.125% in the drinking water, the development of mammary tumours (breast cancer) was significantly inhibited (Nagasawa, Watanabe & Inatomi, 2002). Further, Gingerols which is the active phytonutrients in ginger, helps to kill ovarian cancer cells by inducing apoptosis and autophagocytosis (Rhode et al., 2006). Also, several studies have shown that ginger has promising effect for liver cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer and colorectal carcinomas through its diverse pharmaceutical mechanisms (Karna et al., 2012; Pour et al., 2014; Mekuriya & Mekibib, 2018).
6. Piper nigrum L. – Milagu
Piper nigrum is a valuable medicinal plant which is commonly known as Pippali in Sanskrit, Milagu in Tamil and Peppercorn, White pepper, Green pepper, Black pepper in English. Historically black pepper called as ― “The King of spices” and “The Black Gold”. It is a dried unripe berries and it gives peppercorn. It contains major pungent alkaloid Piperine (1-peperoyl piperidine) which is known to possess many interesting pharmacological actions (Damanhouri & Ahmad, 2014).
Piperine exhibits diverse pharmacological activities viz., antihypertensive and anti-platelets (Taqvi, Shah, & Gilani, 2008), antioxidants, antitumor (Manoharan et al., 2009), anti-asthmatics, anti-inflammatory, antidepressants (Li et al., 2007), antibacterial, antifungal and insecticidal etc. It is also known to enhance cognitive action and fertility (Wattanathom et al., 2008). Piper nigrum had been reported to inhibit tumours formation in various experimental studies. Many studies revealed that Piperine reduce the lung cancer by altering lipid peroxidation and antioxidative protection enzymes activation (Selvendiran & Sakthisekaran, 2004; Ahmad et al., 2010, 2012).
7. Piper longum L. – Thippili
Piper longum Linn., is used in traditional medicine by many people in Asia and Pacific islands particularly in Indian medicine (Shoba et al., 1998). It has been reported as good remedy for treating gonorrhoea, menstrual pain, tuberculosis, sleep problems, respiratory tract infections, and arthritic conditions (Singh, 1992). Also, it treats relaxation of muscle tension and alleviation of anxiety (Singh & Menthal, 1997). Recent research study reported that alcoholic extract of Piper longum (10 mg/dose/animal) as well as piperine (1.14 mg/dose/animal) could inhibit the solid tumour development in mice induced with DLA cells and increase the life span of mice bearing Ehrlich ascites carcinoma tumour to 37.3 and 58.8%, respectively (Sunila & Kuttan, 2004). Also, immunomodulatory activity of Piper longum and piperine may be due to the combined action of humoural and cell-mediated immune responses. Hence, the results indicated that the Piper longum and piperine could act as a non-toxic immunomodulator which possess antitumor property (Sunila & Kuttan, 2004).
Another study investigated the therapeutic and medicinal properties of Piper longum. The anticancer activity of the different extracts of fruits of Piper longum on human lung epithelial adenocarcinoma cell line (HCC-827) has been assessed in vitro using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT assay). The results were revealed that the potency of plant extracts to inhibit the cancerous growth in terms of decrease in viable cell count as compared to the control value. Also, the inhibition of the growth of human lung epithelial adenocarcinoma cell line (HCC-827) has been found to be dose dependent (Sawney, Painuli & Chauhan, 2011).
8. Phyllanthus emblica – Nelli
It is one of the most common medicinal plants used in traditional proprietary medicines particularly Ayurveda and Siddha. Phyllanthus emblica is also known as Emblica officinalis. It belongs to the family of Euphorbeaceae. The common name of this medicinal plant in English as Indian gooseberry and in Tamil language it called as Nelli. Emblica officinalis has been used as medicine and nutritious tonic, possessing vital amino acids and vitamins.
It has rich source of vitamin C and minerals as compared to other citrus fruits (Variya et al., 2016). Also, the extract of Phyllanthus emblicato be utilized as an anticancer agent over the past two decades (Zhao et al., 2015). There are four possibilities that Indian gooseberry can prevent cancer. First, it has potent free radical scavenging activities that might prevent reactive oxygen species induced DNA damage and oncogenesis (Hazra et al., 2010; Majeed et al., 2009). Secondly, the extract has properties allowing it to reduce the levels of cytochrome enzymes in liver cells (Banu et al., 2004). Third, the extracts of Phyllanthus emblica have anti-inflammatory activities that might prevent inflammation related cancers (Golechha et al., 2014). Finally, Phyllanthus emblica possess potent anticancer activity (Baliga & Dsouza, 2011; Yang & Liu, 2014).
9. Andrographis paniculata – Nilavembu
Andrographis paniculata belongs to the family of Acanthaceae. The aerial parts of the plant like leaves and stems are used to extract the active phytochemicals (Agarwal, 2015). The plant extracts showed hepato-protective (Trivedi & Rawal, 2001), vermicidal (Siddhartha et al., 2009), anti-inflammatory (Dao-wen & Hua-yue, 1993) and immune enhancer activity (Puri et al., 1993). Different extracts of A. Paniculata leaves were toxic to cancer cell lines (Rajeshkumar et al., 2015). Anticancer activity of water, ethanol and acetone extracts of A. Paniculata depends on the solvent used for extracting phytochemicals which present in the leaves of A. paniculata. Ethanol extract shows more inhibition of cells when compared other extracts, may due to the presence of alkaloids and flavonoids. Minimum inhibitory concentration was observed based on the percentage of cell viability is 50% at 200 µg/ ml for ethanol extracts and 250 µg/ml for water and acetone extracts against IMR-32 cell lines. Based on this results, water, ethanol and acetone extracts of A. paniculata leaves potentially to be developed as herbal medicine which replace the chemotherapeutic agent against IMR-32 and HT-29 cancer cell lines (Rajeshkumar et al., 2015). Also, Dichloromethane fraction of methanolic extract of A. paniculata has strong anticancer activity against colon cancer (Umadevi et al., 2013).
10. Solanum trilobatum – Thoothuvalai
Solanum trilobatum Linn., is one of the important medicinal plants extensively used in the Indian traditional medicine and also most commonly available herbs in southern India. It belongs to the family of Solanaceae. Also, it is well known in Ayurveda and Siddha system. There are some synonym names of Solanum trilobatum in Tamil language like Nittidam, Sandunayattan, and Surai (Sahu et al., 2013). It has been used in herbal medicine to treat various diseases like respiratory problems, bronchial asthma and tuberculosis (Ramakrishma et al., 2011). The roots, berries and flowers are used for curing cough (Gandhiappan & Rengasamy, 2012). The recent research investigated that check the anti-microbial and anti-cancer activity against bacterial pathogens (E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas, Klebsilla, Bacillus) and fungal pathogens (A. niger, A. flavus, Fusarium) by using the plant extracts which were prepared in ethanolic extracts. The leaf of S. trilobatum were used for antimicrobial analysis, out of the best activity was observed E. coli with maximum zone of inhibition. On the other hand, maximum antifungal activity was recorded with Aspergillus niger. The phytochemical analysis of S. trilobatum were performed such as alkaloids, flavonoids, sugars, glycosides, spannins, tannins, proteins, aminoacids and terpenoid were also analysed. Anti-cancer activity showed the least MIC value at concentration ranging from 2.7µg/ml to 60µg/ml. The results were clearly evidenced that the S. trilobatum extract are very useful improving survival and quality of life inpatient suffering from advanced cancer (Pratheeba, Rani & Ramesh, 2014).
11. Terminalia Chebula – Kadukkai
Terminalia Chebula belongs to the family of Combretaceae and commonly known as “Black Myrobalan”. It has easily found in India and in many Asian countries. Terminalia Chebula is called as “king of medicines” in Ayurveda because of its excellent powers of healing. Traditionally, it is used for anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, hyper lipidemic activity and jaundice (Kirtikar & Basu, 1995, 1987).
In a recent study investigated to evaluate the in-vivo and in-vitro antitumor activity of Terminalia Chebula extract against EAC (Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma) in mice. The ethanolic extract of Terminalia Chebula fruit significantly inhibited tumour in EAC induced cancer in swiss albino mice. This activity involves restoration of hematopoetic parameters, reduction in tumour volume and increased lifespan of the animals (Ahuja, Agarwal & Mukerjee, 2013). Hence, the ethanolic extract of Terminalia Chebula is a good one to treat cancer (Ahuja, Agarwal & Mukerjee, 2013; Priscilla & Jasmine, 2016).
12. Terminalia bellerica – Thandrikkai
The generic name of “Terminalia” comes from Latin word “terminus” or “terminalis” (ending). Terminalia bellerica belongs to the Combretaceae family. It has been used traditionally to treat hepatitis, bronchitis, asthma, dyspepsia, piles, diarrhoea, coughs, and menstrual disorder (Deb, Barua & Das, 2015). Pharmacological investigations have reported anti-oxidation, anti-bacterial, anti-convulsive, hepatoprotective, cholesterol-reducing, hypoglycemic, anti-myocardial-necrosis, and anti-cancer effects (Li et al., 2018; Nampoothiri et al., 2011; Sawant, Pandita & Prabhakar, 2010). In a recent study, UPLC-ESI-MSn revealed 40 polyphenols in an EA extract of T. bellerica. By using cytotoxicity assays, flow cytometry and western blotting, founded that the EA extract T. bellerica exerted the strongest anti-cancer activity in vitro among the three isolated extracts (CH2Cl2, EA and H2O) particularly for ZR-75-1 and Colo-205 cells. Further, the EA extract mediated and executed apoptotic cell death at early and late stages by inactivating the essential target proteins required for the growth and division of cells (Li et al, 2018). Hence, the toxicity seen in ZR-75-1 and Colo-205 cells provides support for the idea that polyphenols in the EA extract to further study for discovery of anti-cancer agents, specifically against breast and colon cancer (Li et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2013).
Various other anti-cancerous herbs
Various other medicinal plants have been studied in various in vivo and in vitro experimental models of cancer and have shown significant inhibition of cancer cell proliferation (Chandra & Nagani, 2013). For instance, Abrusprecatorius in Yoshida‘s sarcoma, carcinoma and Dalton’s lymphoma as cites cancer (Sivakumar & Alagesaboopathi, 2008; Reddy & Sirsi, 1969); Cymbopogon flexuosus in Ehrlich as cites carcinoma and leukemia (Sharma et al., 2009); Ocimum gratissimum in breast cancer (Makker et al., 2007); Punica granatum in prostate cancer (Malik et al., 2005); Moringa oleifera in skin cancer and Human multiple myeloma cancer (Verma et al., 2009; Guevara et al., 1999); Allium sativum insarcoma 180 (Ejaz, Woong & Ejaz A, 2003); Asparagusracemosus in liver cancer (Agarwal et al., 2008; Kamat et al., 2000); Mangifera indica in lung cancer (Rajendran, Ekambaram & Sakthisekaran, 2008); Nigella sativaiin colon cancer (Johar et al., 2008; Swamy & Tan, 2000); Tephrosia purpurea in oral carcinoma (Kavitha & Manoharan, 2006); Tinospora cordifolia in Ehrlich‘s ascites carcinoma (Rao, Rao, P.S. & Rao, B.N., 2008); Withania somnifera in skin carcinoma (Padmavathi et al., 2005); Woodfordia fruticosa insarcoma 180 (Kumaraswamy & Satish, 2008; Yoshida et al., 1990); Beta vulgarisin skin and lung cancer (Jiratanam & Liu, 2004; Kapadia et al., 1996); Emblica officinalis in liver cancer (Sultana, Ahmed & Jahangir, 2008; Anila & Vijayalakshmi, 2003); Ephedra sinica in Murinemelanoma (Nam et al., 2003); Ocimum sanctum in skin cancer (Rastogi et al., 2007); Viscum album in Ehrlich’s carcinoma (Cebovic, Spasic & Popovic, 2008; Ucar, Karagoz & Arda, 2006); Jatropha curcas in skin cancer (Yan et al., 2008; Hirota et al., 1988); Annona reticulate in kidney and colorectal carcinoma cancer (Mondal, Mondal & Mazumder, 2007; Baskar, Rajeswari & Kumar, 2007); Bacopamonniera in sarcoma (Rohini & Devi, 2008); Berberis vulgaris in breast cancer (Tomosaka et al., 2008); Bidens pilosa in cervix cancer (Sundararajan et al., 2006; Abajo et al, 2004); Citrullus colocynthis in breast cancer (Spitz et al., 2007; Spitz, Bergman & Grossman, 2007); Crocus sativus in cervical epithelioid carcinoma cancer (Abdullaev, 2002); Curculigo orchioides in breast cancer (Singh & Gupta, 2008); Ipomoea aquatica in larynx epithelial carcinoma and small lung carcinoma cancer (Prasad et al., 2005); Lantana camara in lung carcinoma (Raghu et al., 2004); Calycopteris floribunda in colon cancer (Ali et al., 2008); Cedrus deodara in acute lymphoblastic leukemia, prostate and lung cancer (Sharma et al., 2008; Tiwari et al., 2001); Curcuma longa in colon cancer (Lee et al., 2008; Hsu et al., 2007); Ipomoea squamosa in ovarian cancer (Cao et al., 2007); Meliaazedarach in lung cancer and glioma cancer (Wu et al., 2009; Szewczuk, Mongelli & Pomilio, 2006); Morinda citrifolia in colon cancer (Kamiya et al., 2009; Anekpankul et al., 2007); Polyalthia longifolia in colon and leukemia HL-60 cancer (Verma et al., 2008); Psidiumgujava in prostate carcinoma cancer (Chen et al., 2007); Tragia involucrata in carcinoma cancer (Joshi, Gopal & Kumari, (2011); Semecarpus anacardium acute myeloblastic leukaemia, chronic myelogenic leukaemia, breast adeno carcinoma, cervical epithelial carcinoma and colon carcinoma cancer (Nair et al., 2009; Chakraborty et al., 2004)
Conclusion
To conclude, some medicinal anticancer plants of Indian origin as well as other countries have been revealed significant treatment for curing cancer from available research sources. These traditional medicinal herbs possess good antioxidant properties, which inhibit growth of cancer cells as well as they have the properties of anticancer activities. However, nearly all of the studies which focused on single herb study and rarely found that herbs which made combination with other herbal plants (Combination of Herbs / Compound Herbs). On the basis of siddha literature and modern science, to develop innovative compound drugs are needed nowadays to cure or suppress various types of cancer diseases. Also, it is unavoidable to the present situation to find out particular herbs or compound herbs, have more effective to the prevention of cancer like diseases. Particularly, in India, the availability of herbal plants are more as compared to other countries which aid to the researchers to explore innovative siddha drugs to cancer care.
References
Abajo, C., Boffill, M. A., del Campo, J., Mendez, M. A., Gonzalez, Y., Mitjans, M. and Vinardell, M. P. (2004). In vitro study of the antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity of aqueous infusion of Bidens pilosa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 93(2-3): 319-323.
Abdullaev, F. I. (2002). Cancer chemopreventive and tumoricidal properties of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Experimental biology and medicine, 227(1): 20-25.
Agarwal, D. (2015). A new anticancer flavonoid from the leaves of Andrographis paniculata. Journal of Global Biosciences, 4(5): 2355-2360.
Agarwal, S., Jacob, S., Chettri, N., Bisoyi, S., Tazeen, A., Vedamurthy, A. B., Krishna, V. and Hoskeri, J. H. (2011). Evaluation of In-vitro Anthelminthic Activity of Catharanthus roseus Extract. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, 3(3): 211-213.
Agrawal, A., Sharma, M., Rai, S. K., Singh, B., Tiwari, M. and Chandra, R. (2008). The effect of the aqueous extract of the roots of Asparagus racemosus on hepatocarcinogenesis initiated by diethylnitrosamine. Phytotherapy research, 22(9): 1175-1182.
Ahmad, N., Fazal, H., Abbasi, B. H., Farooq, S., Ali, M. and Khan, M. A. (2012). Biological role of Piper nigrum L. (Black pepper): A review. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 2(3): S1945-S1953.
Ahmad, N., Fazal, H., Abbasi, B. H., Rashid, M., Mahmood, T. and Fatima, N. (2010). Efficient regeneration and antioxidant potential in regenerated tissues of Piper nigrum L. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC), 102(1): 129-134.
Ahuja, R., Agrawal, N. and Mukerjee, A. (2013). Evaluation of anticancer potential of Terminalia chebula fruits against Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma induced cancer in mice. J Scient Innov Res, 2(3): 549-554.
Ali, H. A., Chowdhury, A. A., Rahman, A. K., Borkowski, T., Nahar, L. and Sarker, S. D. (2008). Pachypodol, a flavonol from the leaves of Calycopteris floribunda, inhibits the growth of CaCo 2 colon cancer cell line in vitro. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives, 22(12): 1684-1687.
Al‐Johar, D., Shinwari, N., Arif, J., Al‐Sanea, N., Jabbar, A. A., El‐Sayed, R. A. and Al‐Saleh, I. (2008). Role of Nigella sativa and a number of its antioxidant constituents towards azoxymethane‐induced genotoxic effects and colon cancer in rats. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives, 22(10): 1311-1323.
Anand, P., Kunnumakara, A. B., Sundaram, C., Harikumar, K. B., Tharakan, S. T., Lai, O. S. and Aggarwal, B. B. (2008). Cancer is a preventable disease that requires major lifestyle changes. Pharmaceutical research, 25(9): 2097-2116.
Anekpankul, T., Goto, M., Sasaki, M., Pavasant, P. and Shotipruk, A. (2007). Extraction of anti-cancer damnacanthal from roots of Morinda citrifolia by subcritical water. Separation and Purification Technology, 55(3): 343-349.
Anila, L. and Vijayalakshmi, N. R. (2003). Antioxidant action of flavonoids from Mangifera indica and Emblica officinalis in hypercholesterolemic rats. Food chemistry, 83(4): 569-574.
Aruna, M. S., Prabha, M. S., Priya, N. S. and Nadendla, R. (2015). Catharanthus Roseus: ornamental plant is now medicinal boutique. Journal of Drug Delivery and therapeutics, 1-4.
Ashwini, P. and Krishnamoorthy, M. (2010). Anticancer activity of Trigonella foenum-graecum on Ehrlich Ascites carcinoma in Mus musculus system. Journal of Pharmacy Research, 3(6): 1181-1183.
Babulova, A., Machova, J. and Nosalova, V. (2003). Protective action of vinpocetine against experimentally induced gastric damage in rats. Arzneimittel forschung, 43:981-985.
Baliga, M. S. and Dsouza, J. J. (2011). Amla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn), a wonder berry in the treatment and prevention of cancer. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 20(3): 225-239.
Banskota, A. H. (2002). Antiproliferative activity of Vietnamese medicinal plants. Biological Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25(6):753- 60.
Banu, S. M., Selvendiran, K., Singh, J. P. V. and Sakthisekaran, D. (2004). Protective effect of Emblica officinalis ethanolic extract against 7, 12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene (DMBA) induced genotoxicity in Swiss albino mice. Human & experimental toxicology, 23(11): 527-531.
Baskar, R., Rajeswari, V. and Kumar, T. S. (2007). In vitro antioxidant studies in leaves of Annona species. Indian J Exp Biol, 45: 480-485.
Bode, A. (2003). Ginger is an effective inhibitor of HCT 116 human colorectal carcinoma in vivo. Frontiers in Cancer Prevention Research Conference, Phoenix, AZ, 26–30.
Cao, S., Norris, A., Wisse, J. H., Miller, J. S., Evans, R. and Kingston, D. G. (2007). Ipomoeassin F, a new cytotoxic macrocyclic glycoresin from the leaves of Ipomoea squamosa from the Suriname rainforest. Natural product research, 21(10): 872-876.
Cebovic, T., Spasic, S. and Popovic, M. (2008). Cytotoxic effects of the Viscum album L. extract on Ehrlich tumour cells in vivo. Phytotherapy research, 22(8): 1097-1103.
Chakraborty, S., Roy, M., Taraphdar, A. K. and Bhattacharya, R. K. (2004). Cytotoxic effect of root extract of Tiliacora racemosa and oil of Semecarpus anacardium nut in human tumour cells. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives, 18(8): 595-600.
Chanda, S. and Nagani, K. (2013). In vitro and in vivo methods for anticancer activity evaluation and some Indian medicinal plants possessing anticancer properties: an overview. Journal of pharmacognosy and phytochemistry, 2(2).
Chen, K. C., Hsieh, C. L., Peng, C. C., Hsieh-Li, H. M., Chiang, H. S., Huang, K. D. and Peng, R. Y. (2007). Brain derived metastatic prostate cancer DU-145 cells are effectively inhibited in vitro by guava (Psidium gujava L.) leaf extracts. Nutrition and cancer, 58(1): 93-106.
Damanhouri, Z. A. and Ahmad, A. (2014). A review on therapeutic potential of Piper nigrum L. Black Pepper): The King of Spices. Med Aromat Plants, 3(161): 2167-0412.
Dao-wen, W. and Hua-yue, Z. (1993). Experimental studies on prevention of atherosclerotic arterial stenosis and restenosis after angioplasty with Andrographis paniculata Nees and fish oil. Journal of Tongji Medical University, 13(4): 193-198.
Deb, A., Barua, S. and Das, B. (2016). Pharmacological activities of Baheda (Terminalia bellerica): a review. Journal of pharmacognosy and phytochemistry, 5(1): 194.
Deena Priscilla, H. and Jasmine, R. (2016). Evaluation of in vitro anticancer activity of Terminalia chebula and Identification of Phytocompounds by GC MS analysis. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 8(7): 683-688.
Ejaz, S., Woong, L. C. and Ejaz, A. (2003). Extract of garlic (Allium sativum) in cancer chemoprevention. Exp Oncol, 25: 93-97.
Faguet, G. B. (2015). A brief history of cancer: Age‐old milestones underlying our current knowledge database. International journal of cancer, 136(9): 2022-2036.
Gandhiappan, J. and Rengasamy, R. (2012). Comparative study on antioxidant activity of different species of Solanaceae family. Adv. Appl. Sci. Res, 3(3): 1538-1544.
Golechha, M., Sarangal, V., Ojha, S., Bhatia, J. and Arya, D. S. (2014). Anti-inflammatory effect of Emblica officinalis in rodent models of acute and chronic inflammation: involvement of possible mechanisms. International journal of inflammation.
Guevara, A. P., Vargas, C., Sakurai, H., Fujiwara, Y., Hashimoto, K., Maoka, T. and Nishino, H. (1999). An antitumor promoter from Moringa oleifera Lam. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 440(2): 181-188.
Harlan, J. (1970). Cynodon species and their value for grazing and hay. Herbage Abstract, 40(3): 233-238.
Hazra, B., Sarkar, R., Biswas, S. and Mandal, N. (2010). Comparative study of the antioxidant and reactive oxygen species scavenging properties in the extracts of the fruits of Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica and Emblica officinalis. BMC Complementary and alternative medicine, 10 (1): 20.
Hirota, M., Suttajit, M., Suguri, H., Endo, Y., Shudo, K., Wongchai, V. and Fujiki, H. (1988). A new tumor promoter from the seed oil of Jatropha curcas L., an intramolecular diester of 12-deoxy-16- hydroxyphorbol. Cancer Research, 48 (20): 5800-5804.
Hsu, Y. C., Weng, H. C., Lin, S. and Chien, Y. W. (2007). Curcuminoids—cellular uptake by human primary colon cancer cells as quantitated by a sensitive Hplc assay and its relation with the inhibition of proliferation and apoptosis. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 55(20): 8213-8222.
Jiratanan, T. and Liu, R. H. (2004). Antioxidant activity of processed table beets (Beta vulgaris var, conditiva) and green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52(9): 2659-2670.
Joshi, C. G., Gopal, M. and Kumari, N. S. (2011). Antitumor activity of hexane and ethyl acetate extracts of Tragia involucrata. International Journal of Cancer Research, 7(4): 267-277.
Kaleeswaran, B., Ilavenil, S. and Ravikumar, S. (2010). Screening of phytochemical properties and antibacterial activity of Cynodon dactylon L. International Journal of Current Research, 3: 83-88.
Kamat, J. P., Boloor, K. K., Devasagayam, T. P. and Venkatachalam, S. R. (2000). Antioxidant properties of Asparagus racemosus against damage induced by γ-radiation in rat liver mitochondria. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 71(3): 425-435.
Kamiya, K., Hamabe, W., Tokuyama, S., Hirano, K., Satake, T., Kumamoto-Yonezawa, Y. and Mizushina, Y. (2010). Inhibitory effect of anthraquinones isolated from the Noni (Morinda citrifolia) root on animal A-, B-and Y-families of DNA polymerases and human cancer cell proliferation. Food Chemistry, 118(3): 725- 730.
Kanthasamy Mudhaliar, (1993). Editor (1sted). Pathinensiddhararulicheytha Aathma Ratshamirtham Ennum Vaidhya Saara Sangiragam: Rathnanayakkar and Sons Publications; p.356, 382, 387, 418-21.
Kapadia, G. J., Tokuda, H., Konoshima, T. and Nishino, H. (1996). Chemoprevention of lung and skin cancer by Beta vulgaris (beet) root extract. Cancer letters, 100(1-2): 211-214.
Karna, P., Chagani, S., Gundala, S. R., Rida, P. C., Asif, G., Sharma, V. and Aneja, R. (2012). Benefits of whole ginger extract in prostate cancer. British journal of nutrition, 107(4): 473-484.
Kavitha, K. and Manoharan, S. (2006). Anticarcinogenic and antilipidperoxidative effects of Tephrosia purpurea (Linn.) Pers. in 7, 12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene (DMBA) induced hamster buccal pouch carcinoma. Indian journal of pharmacology, 38(3): 185.
Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D. (1987). Indian Materia Medica. Dehra Dun, India, 3: 333-335.
Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D. (1995). Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. 1: 536-541.
Kumaraswamy, M. V. and Satish, S. (2008). Free radical scavenging activity and lipoxygenase inhibition of Woodfordia fructicosa Kurz and Betula utilis Wall. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(12): 2013-2016.
Lee, T. H., Hsu, C. C., Hsiao, G., Fang, J. Y., Liu, W. M. and Lee, C. K. (2016). Anti-MMP-2 Activity and Skin-Penetrating Capability of the Chemical Constituents from Rhodiola rosea. Planta medica, 82(08): 698-704.
Lee, Y. K., Lee, W. S., Hwang, J. T., Kwon, D. Y., Surh, Y. J. and Park, O. J. (2008). Curcumin exerts antidifferentiation effect through AMPKα-PPAR-γ in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and antiproliferatory effect through AMPKα-COX-2 in cancer cells. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 57(1): 305-310.
Lekha, G. S., Aparna, S., Kasirajan, N. and Kanagarajan, A. (2018). Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer–Siddha Perspective. J Res Sid Med, 1(1): 3-14.
Li, S., Wang, C., Wang, M., Li, W., Matsumoto, K. and Tang, Y. (2007). Antidepressant like effects of piperine in chronic mild stress treated mice and its possible mechanisms. Life sciences, 80 (15): 1373-1381.
Li, S., Ye, T., Liang, L., Liang, W., Jian, P., Zhou, K. and Zhang, L. (2018). Anti-cancer activity of an ethyl-acetate extract of the fruits of Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb. through an apoptotic signalling pathway in vitro. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medical Sciences, 5(4): 370-379.
Majeed, M., Bhat, B., Jadhav, A. N., Srivastava, J. S. and Nagabhushanam, K. (2009). Authentication of Fruit Extracts of Embica officinalis Gaertn (Euphorbiaceae): Identification of Valid Biomarkers. Planta Medica, 75 (04): S-47.
Manoharan, S., Balakrishnan, S., Menon, V. P., Alias, L. M. and Reena, A. R. (2009). Chemopreventive efficacy of curcumin and piperine during 7, 12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene-induced hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis. Singapore medical journal, 50(2): 139.
Marappan, S. and Annapoorani, S. (2012). Antitumor activity of methanolic extract of Cynodon dactylon leaves against ehrlich ascites induced carcinoma in mice. Journal of Advanced Scientific Research, 3 (1): 105-108.
McGee, H. (2004). On food and cooking, in H. McGee (Ed.), The science and lore of the kitchen. 2nd Edition. New York, 425-426.
Mekuriya, W. and Mekibib, B. (2018). Review on the Medicinal Values of Ginger for Human and Animal Ailments. Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology. 09. 10.4172/2157-7579.1000519.
Moga, M., Dimienescu, O., Arvatescu, C., Ifteni, P. and Pleş, L. (2018). Anticancer activity of toxins from bee and snake venom—An overview on ovarian cancer. Molecules, 23(3): 692.
Mondal, S. K., Mondal, N. B. and Mazumder, U. K. (2007). In vitro cytotoxic and human recombinant caspase inhibitory effect of Annona reticulata leaves. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 39 (5): 253.
Nagasawa, H., Watanabe, K. and Inatomi, H. (2002). Effects of bitter melon (Momordica charantia l.) or ginger rhizome (Zingiber offifinale rosc) on spontaneous mammary tumorigenesis in SHN mice. American Journal of Chinese Medicine, 30(2-3): 195–205.
Nair, P. R., Melnick, S. J., Wnuk, S. F., Rapp, M., Escalon, E. and Ramachandran, C. (2009). Isolation and characterization of an anticancer catechol compound from Semecarpus anacardium. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 122(3): 450-456.
Nam, N. H., Lee, C. W., Hong, D. H., Kim, H. M., Bae, K. H. and Ahn, B. Z. (2003). Antiinvasive, antiangiogenic and antitumour activity of Ephedra sinica extract. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives, 17(1): 70-76.
Nampoothiri, S. V., Prathapan, A., Cherian, O. L., Raghu, K. G., Venugopalan, V. V. and Sundaresan, A. (2011). In vitro antioxidant and inhibitory potential of Terminalia bellerica and Emblica officinalis fruits against LDL oxidation and key enzymes linked to type 2 diabetes. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 49(1): 125-131.
Nangia‐Makker, P., Tait, L., Shekhar, M. P., Palomino, E., Hogan, V., Piechocki, M. P. and Raz, A. (2007). Inhibition of breast tumor growth and angiogenesis by a medicinal herb: Ocimum gratissimum. International journal of cancer, 121(4): 884-894.
Nayak, B. S., Anderson, M. and Pereira, L. P. (2007). Evaluation of wound-healing potential of Catharanthus roseus leaf extract in rats. Fitoterapia, 78(7-8): 540-544.
Onay Ucar, E., Karagoz, A. and Arda, N. (2006). Antioxidant activity of Viscum album ssp. album. Fitoterapia, 77(7-8): 556-560.
Padmavathi, B., Rath, P. C., Rao, A. R. and Singh, R. P. (2005). Roots of Withania somnifera inhibit forestomach and skin carcinogenesis in mice. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine, 2(1): 99-105.
Patel, Y., Vishal Kumar Vadgama., Baxi Seema. and Tripathi, C. B. (2011). Evaluation of hypolipidemic activity of leaf juice of Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Donn. In guinea pigs. Acta Pol Pharm, 68(6): 927-935.
Patil, M. B., Jalalpure, S. S., Prakash, N. S. and Kokate, C. K. (2003). Antiulcer properties of alcoholic extract of Cynodon dactylon in rats. In III WOCMAP Congress on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants-Volume 6: Traditional Medicine and Nutraceuticals 680 (pp. 115-118).
Pesek, T., Helton, L. R., Reminick, R., Kannan, D. and Nair, M. (2009). Healing Traditions of Southern India and the Conservation of Culture and Biodiversity: A preliminary study. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 6: 471-479.
Pillay, P. P., Nair, C. P. M. and Santi Kumari, T. N. (1959). Lochnera rosea as a potential source of hypotensive and other remedies. Bulletin of Research Institute of the University of Kerala, 1: 51-54.
Pour, H. A., Norouzzade, R., Heidari, M. R., Ogut, S., Yaman, H. and Gokce, S. (2014). Therapeutic properties of Zingiber officinale roscoe: a review. European Journal of Medicinal Plants, 4(12): 1431.
Pradhan, S., Mohapatra, R. and Pradhan, D. (2015). Ethnomedicinal plants of Odisha used against Breast Cancer – A Review. Int J Chem Pharm Rev Res, 1(2): 38-42.
Prasad, K. N., Ashok, G., Raghu, C., Shivamurthy, G. R., Vijayan, P. and Aradhya, S. M. (2005). In vitro cytotoxic properties of Ipomoea aquatica leaf. Indian journal of pharmacology, 37(6): 397.
Prasad, L. V. (2002). Indian system of medicine and homoeopathy, Editor: Ranjit Roy Chaudhury, Uton Muchtar Rafei, WHO, Regional office for South East Asia, New Delhi, P 283.
Pratheeba, M., Rani, K. U. and Ramesh, B. (2014). Studies on antimicrobial and anticancer activity of Solanum Trilobatum. Asian J Pharm Clin Res, 7(1): 213-219.
Puri, A., Saxena, R., Saxena, R. P., Saxena, K. C., Srivastava, V. and Tandon, J. S. (1993). Immunostimulant agents from Andrographis paniculata. Journal of Natural products, 56(7): 995-999.
Raghu, C., Ashok, G., Dhanaraj, S. A., Suresh, B. and Vijayan, P. (2004). In vitro cytotoxic activity of Lantana camara Linn. Indian journal of pharmacology, 36(2): 94.
Rajendran, P., Ekambaram, G. and Sakthisekaran, D. (2008). Effect of mangiferin on benzo (a) pyrene induced lung carcinogenesis in experimental Swiss albino mice. Natural product research, 22(8): 672-680.
Rajeshkumar, S., Nagalingam, M., Ponnanikajamideen, M., Vanaja, M. and Malarkodi, C. (2015). Anticancer activity of Andrographis paniculata leaves extract against neuroblastima (IMR-32) and human colon (HT-29) cancer cell line. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 4(6): 1667-1675.
Rajput, M. S., Nair, V., Chauhan, A., Jawanjal, H. and Dange, V. (2011). Evaluation of antidiarrheal activity of aerial parts of Vinca major in experimental animals. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 7(5): 784- 788.
Ramakrishna, S., Ramana, K. V., Mihira, V. and Kumar, B. P. (2000). Evaluation of anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of Solanum trilobatum. Linn. Roots. Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci, 2(1): 701-5.
Rao, S. K., Rao, P. S. and Rao, B. N. (2008). Preliminary investigation of the radiosensitizing activity of guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia) in tumor‐bearing mice. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives, 22(11): 1482-1489.
Rastogi, S., Shukla, Y., Paul, B. N., Chowdhuri, D. K., Khanna, S. K. and Das, M. (2007). Protective effect of Ocimum sanctum on 3-methylcholanthrene, 7, 12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene and aflatoxin B1 induced skin tumorigenesis in mice. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 224(3): 228-240.
Reddy, V. S. and Sirsi, M. (1969). Effect of Abrus precatorius L. on experimental tumors. Cancer Research, 29(7): 1447-1451.
Rhode, J. M., Huang, J., Fogoros, S., Tan, L., Zick, S. and Liu, J. R. (2006). Ginger induces apoptosis and autophagocytosis in ovarian cancer cells. 97th AACR Annual Meeting, Washington, DC.
Rohini, G. and Devi, C. S. (2008). Bacopa monniera extract Induces apoptosis in murine sarcoma cells (S‐180). Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives, 22(12): 1595-1598.
Sahu, J., Rathi, B., Koul, S. and Khosa, R. L. (2013). Solanum trilobatum (Solanaceae)-an overview. Journal of Natural Remedies, 13(2): 76-80.
Sawant, L., Pandita, N. and Prabhakar, B. (2010). Determination of gallic acid in Phyllanthus emblica Linn. dried fruit powder by HPTLC. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 2(2): 105.
Sawhney, S. S., Painuli, R. M. and Chauhan, N. E. H. A. (2011). Evaluation of bactericidal and anticancer properties of fruits of Piper longum. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 3(5): 282- 287.
Sekar, P. (1996). Vedic clues to memory enhancer. The Hindu, March, 21. Selvendiran, K. and Sakthisekaran, D. (2004). Chemopreventive effect of piperine on modulating lipid peroxidation and membrane bound enzymes in benzo (a) pyrene induced lung carcinogenesis. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy, 58(4): 264-267.
Sharma, P. R., Mondhe, D. M., Muthiah, S., Pal, H. C., Shahi, A. K., Saxena, A. K. and Qazi, G. N. (2009). Anticancer activity of an essential oil from Cymbopogon flexuosus. Chemico-biological interactions, 179(2-3): 160-168.
Sharma, P. R., Shanmugavel, M., Saxena, A. K. and Qazi, G. N. (2008). Induction of apoptosis by a synergistic lignan composition from Cedrus deodara in human cancer cells. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives, 22(12): 1587- 1594.
Shoba, G., Joy, D., Joseph, T., Majeed, M., Rajendran, R. and Srinivas, P. S. S. R. (1998). Influence of piperine on the pharmacokinetics of curcumin in animals and human volunteers. Planta medica, 64(04): 353-356.
Shukla, Y. and Singh, M. (2007). Cancer preventive properties of zinger: a brief review, Food and Chemical Toxicology, 45(5): 683–690.
Siddhartha, S., Archana, M., Jinu, J. and Pradeep, M. (2009). Anthelmintic Potential of Andrographis paniculata, Cajanus cajan and Silybum marianum. Pharmacognosy Journal, 1(4).
Singh, R. and Gupta, A. K. (2008). Antimicrobial and antitumor activity of the fractionated extracts of Kalimusli (Curculigo orchioides). International Journal of Green Pharmacy (IJGP), 2(1).
Singh, Y. N. and Blue Menthal, M., (1997). Kava, an overview. Herbal Gram, 39: 34–55. Singh, Y. N., (1992). Kava an overview. Journal of Ethanopharmacology, 37: 18–45.
Sivakumar, R. and Alagesaboopathi, C. (2008). Studies on cytotoxicity and antitumor screening of red and white forms of Abrus precatorius L. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(22).
Sivaraj, R., Balakrishnan, A., Thenmozhi, M. and Venkatesh, R. (2011). Preliminary phytochemical analysis of Aegle marmelos, Ruta graveolens, Opuntia dellini, Euphorbia royleana and Euphorbia antiquorum. Int J Pharm Sci Res, 2: 132-136.
Sultana, S., Ahmed, S. and Jahangir, T. (2008). Emblica officinalis and hepatocarcinogenesis: a chemopreventive study in Wistar rats. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 118(1): 1-6.
Sundararajan, P., Dey, A., Smith, A., Doss, A. G., Rajappan, M. and Natarajan, S. (2006). Studies of anticancer and antipyretic activity of Bidens pilosa whole plant. African health sciences, 6(1): 27-30.
Sunila, E. S. and Kuttan, G. (2004). Immunomodulatory and antitumor activity of Piper longum Linn. and piperine. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 90(2-3): 339-346.
Swamy, S. M. K. and Tan, B. K. H. (2000). Cytotoxic and immunopotentiating effects of ethanolic extract of Nigella sativa L. seeds. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 70(1): 1-7.
Szewczuk, V. D., Mongelli, E. R. and Pomilio, A. B. (2006). In vitro anthelmintic activity of Melia azedarach naturalized in Argentina. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives, 20(11): 993-996.
Tannin-Spitz, T., Bergman, M. and Grossman, S. (2007). Cucurbitacin glucosides: Antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activities. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 364(1): 181-186.
Tannin-Spitz, T., Grossman, S., Dovrat, S., Gottlieb, H. E. and Bergman, M. (2007). Growth inhibitory activity of cucurbitacin glucosides isolated from Citrullus colocynthis on human breast cancer cells. Biochemical pharmacology, 73(1): 56-67.
Taqvi, S. I. H., Shah, A. J. and Gilani, A. H. (2008). Blood pressure lowering and vasomodulator effects of piperine. Journal of cardiovascular pharmacology, 52(5): 452-458.
Thirunarayanan, T. (2012). Introduction to Siddha Medicine, Centre for Traditional Medicine and Research, Chennai.
Thiyagarajan, R. (1976). Editor (2nded). Yugimunivar Vaithya Chinthamani (Perunool 800): Chapter 30. Chennai: Directorate of Indian Medicine and Homeopathy Publications, p.442-49.
Tiwari, A. K., Srinivas, P. V., Kumar, S. P. and Rao, J. M. (2001). Free radical scavenging active components from Cedrus deodara. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 49(10): 4642-4645.
Tomosaka, H., Chin, Y. W., Salim, A. A., Keller, W. J., Chai, H. and Kinghorn, A. D. (2008). Antioxidant and cytoprotective compounds from Berberis vulgaris (barberry). Phytotherapy Research, 22(7): 979-981.
Trivedi, N. P. and Rawal, U. M. (2001). Hepatoprotective and antioxidant property of Andrographis paniculata (Nees) in BHC induced liver damage in mice. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 32 (1): 41-46.
Umadevi, M., Kumar, K. S., Bhowmik, D. and Duraivel, S. (2013). Traditionally used anticancer herbs in India. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies, 1(3): 56-74.
Variya, B. C., Bakrania, A. K. and Patel, S. S. (2016). Emblica officinalis (Amla): A review for its phytochemistry, ethnomedicinal uses and medicinal potentials with respect to molecular mechanisms. Pharmacological research, 111: 180-200.
Venkatesan, D., Karrunakarn, C. M., Kumar, S. S. and Swamy, P. (2009). Identification of phytochemical constituents of Aegle marmelos responsible for antimicrobial activity against selected pathogenic organisms. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, (11): 4.
Verma, A. R., Vijayakumar, M., Mathela, C. S. and Rao, C. V. (2009). In vitro and in vivo antioxidant properties of different fractions of Moringa oleifera leaves. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 47(9): 2196-2201.
Verma, M., Singh, S. K., Bhushan, S., Sharma, V. K., Datt, P., Kapahi, B. K. and Saxena, A. K. (2008). In vitro cytotoxic potential of Polyalthia longifolia on human cancer cell lines and induction of apoptosis through mitochondrial-dependent pathway in HL-60 cells. Chemico-biological interactions, 171(1): 45-56.
Wang, S., Zheng, Z. and Weng, Y. (2004). Angiogenesis and antiangiogenesis activity of Chinese medicinal herbal extracts. Life Science, 74 (20): 2467-78.
Wattanathorn, J., Chonpathompikunlert, P., Muchimapura, S., Priprem, A. and Tankamnerdthai, O. (2008). Piperine, the potential functional food for mood and cognitive disorders. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46(9): 3106-3110.
Weiss, E. A. (1997). Essential Oil Crops, CAB International, Oxon, UK and New York, 76.
World Health Organization. (2000). General Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicine, WHO/EDM/TRM/2000.1, Geneva: World Health Organization. Available at http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jwhozip42e/
World Health organization. (2002). Traditional medicine strategy 2002-2005. Geneva: World Health Organization.
World Health Organization. (2013). Traditional medicine strategy 2014-2023. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Wu, S. B., Ji, Y. P., Zhu, J. J., Zhao, Y., Xia, G., Hu, Y. H. and Hu, J. F. (2009). Steroids from the leaves of Chinese Melia azedarach and their cytotoxic effects on human cancer cell lines. Steroids, 74(9): 761-765.
Yan, R., Gao, S., Yang, W., Cao, M., Wang, S. and Chen, F. (2008). Nickel toxicity induced antioxidant enzyme and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activities in Jatropha curcas L. cotyledons. Plant Soil Environ, 54(7): 294-300.
Yang, B. and Liu, P. (2014). Composition and biological activities of hydrolyzable tannins of fruits of Phyllanthus emblica. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 62(3): 529-541.
Yoshida, T., Chou, T., Nitta, A., Miyamoto, K. I., Koshiura, R. and Okuda, T. (1990). Woodfordin C, a macroring hydrolyzable tannin dimer with antitumor activity, and accompanying dimers from Woodfordia fruticosa flowers. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 38(5): 1211-1217.
Zhang, X. Q., Gu, H. M., Li, X. Z., Xu, Z. N., Chen, Y. S. and Li, Y. (2013). Anti-Helicobacter pylori compounds from the ethanol extracts of Geranium wilfordii. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 147(1): 204-207.
Zhao, T., Sun, Q., Marques, M. and Witcher, M. (2015). Anticancer properties of Phyllanthus emblica (Indian gooseberry). Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….